Use of learning curves in real-life
If you studied management accounting in the past, do you remember this formula:
Y=tXl
Y= average hours to produce product, t= time to produce first unit, X= cumulative units produced and l= rate of learning.
Of course, you don’t remember this – it’s the formula for a learning curve. A what? A learning curve, which is the relationship between the time taken to complete a task as an employee learns how to do the task. Management accountants learn this formula as it can be used to predict how costs might behave when production tasks are changed or new tasks introduced. I have to say I have never had to use a learning curve in my time in industry, and forgot the formula until I had to teach it to students again in recent years.
A CIMA research report recently shed some light on the use of learning curves. According to the research, about 6% of respondents to a survey actually used learning curves in some way, but a vast majority of management accountants considered the technique appropriate for the organisation they worked in. What’s interesting is that the main reason for not using learning curves is a lack of knowledge on the part on management accountants. I suppose this does not surprise me as if you don’t use any particular accounting technique, you’ll quickly forget it. Which is exactly what I done! Until now that is. The research report does not give detailed findings on the specific uses of the learning curve, but top of the list of uses in planning/budgeting and costing of products/services.
Risk management and management accountants
The idea of accountants taking risks tends to go against the stereotype image that accountants get – you know, grey suit, drives a Volvo and so on. Businesses take risks everyday, based on information available and sometimes on experience or gut instinct. Management accountants provide a lot of the information needed by managers to make decisions on a daily basis. One wonders though what happened to assessing risk in banks in recent times. I am reading a book called Downfall by Joseph Stiglitz at the moment and he sure has a lot to say about the lack of risk assessment by US (and European) banks on recent years. In one passage he talks about how banks assumed the risk of other banks failing, or of a property-crash were seen as minimal. But look what happened.
I read a piece back in January in CIMA’s Insight on risk management and management accountants. The key message from this article was that management accountants need to get the message across about risk. They are after all providers of information for decision making, and are training in risk management. As noted in the piece, defining exactly what risk is is not that simple. It seems risk managers may not have been overly involved in decision-making at high levels in recent times. The author suggests that risk managers and managements accountants work closely together to get the message across about risk. I couldn’t agree more. Management accountants may have shook off the dull, boring stereotype and are now often part of the management team and/or board. Thus, as the article suggests, risk managers might piggy-back on the organisational knowledge of management accountants and get active in the areas where risky decisions are being discussed or taken – i.e. at board level.
What is the prudence concept?
The prudence concept is another fundamental accounting concept. It basically means we count count our chickens before they hatch. In other words, when presented with options, the prudence concept would dictate we err on the side of caution. In practice, this means we should not overstate income, understate expenses, over-value assets or understate liabilities. To give an example, inventory is valued at the lower of cost or net realisable value (which is more or less what something sells for). While there are detailed accounting rules on inventory valuation, this is an example of the prudence concept at work. So, if the net realisable value was less that cost, inventory would be stated on the books at below cost. Another example is providing for bad and doubtful debts. For example, a business might think 2% of its customer debt will not be paid. This might not actually happen, but it is prudent to assume it will.
What is the accruals concept?
Okay, in my last post I explained the entity concept. Today, it’s the turn of the accruals concept. The accruals (or matching) concept is probably the one that most accounting students come across so often. It also underpins quite a few of the complex accounting standards. So what does the accruals concept entail?
The matching concept is probably a better name for it, as the accruals concept is all about matching costs and revenues. When cash comes in from sales, or is paid out for costs does not matter. Let me give you an example. Assume a business has a delivery van which cost €20,000 and will be good for 5 years. This means it helps to generate revenue (by delivering goods) for 5 years. The accrual concept would dictate that the cost is matched against the revenue generating capability. So, even if the van were bought and paid for right now, the cost in the accounts would be €4,000 per year for each of the five years. In this way, the cost is matched against revenues over the same time frame. Here’s another real life example. How do you think an airline like Ryanair accounts for its’s revenues? You buy the ticket weeks or months in advance, so can they record the sale once you pay? The answer is no, as no cost has been incurred. Once you fly, the cost is now incurred and the revenue (sale) can be recorded in the accounts, even though the cash has been paid in advance.
Watch out for more on the basic accounting concepts soon!
What is the entity concept?
If you are learning accounting for the first time, one of the earlier things you should learn are basic accounting concepts. These are underlying rules which apply to accounting no matter how simple or complex the business or (to the best of my knowledge) the location.
One of these concepts is called the entity concept. In accounting, financial statements (e.g. income statement, statement of financial position (balance sheet)) need to be prepared for each business entity or group of entities under common control. When we think of large companies this is probably a simple enough concept to grasp. Companies are by nature separate legal entities too, and costs and revenues for each legal entity are normally easy enough to identify. In large groups, the entities are combined to prepare financial statements for the group as a whole. When we get down to the typical one-man-show type sole trader, things can get a bit blurred. But, the sole trader is probably the best example to explain the entity concept. For the sole trader, the entity concept would dictate that all business and personal expenses must be separated. Here’s an example. Let’s say a sole trader makes a business trip which means an overnight stay in a hotel. Let’s assume his/her partner comes along. Should any costs associated with the partner be treated as expenses in the sole trader’s accounts? Of course, the answer is no. (But hotel rooms often cost the same for 1 or 2 persons you’re thinking – so make sure your partner’s name does not appear on any bills for the room!). I remember another example from my time in practice. Following a tax audit, the tax inspectors correctly disallowed a repair to a washing machine as a business expense. This would only be an expense in a laundrette or similar business.
So the key thing to remember about the entity concept is to isolate the business entity and only include costs and revenues associated with that entity. Any personal costs/revenues should not be included. Costs/revenues of other entities should be excluded in general too (unless you are looking at a group).
Key metrics for your small business
In management accounting, we often talk about Key Performance Indicators (or KPI). These are measures of business performance which catch the essence of how a business is doing. Choosing the right KPI is not an easy task, even for a business with accountants on the payroll. This leaves it tough on smaller businesses, who probably have little expertise in this area. Having said that, there are a number of key things you might focus on as a small business.
The first is cash, without it you are snookered. Accountants often refer to liquidity issues, meaning a business cannot generate enough cash. Liquidity issues lead to solvency problems, meaning you can’t pay debts as they fall due. Traditionally, accountants will tell you need the ratio of cash and receivables to payables to be about 1:1. To make this sort of metric even easier, why not think about it like this:
Cash in the bank/Monthly cash requirements = number of months until cash runs out.
You could easily work this measure out at any time and try to collect debts from customers before you run out of cash. If you have a bank overdraft which is within its limit, you could quickly alter the above to figure out how long until you hit the overdraft limit.
A second key metric is your cost structure. You could regularly compare you costs as a portion of sales revenue. Keeping a tab on this might help prevent cost overruns over a period of time. So if you see sales drop off, are costs remaining the same?
Finally, think beyond the traditional financial measures. Try to think of what it is that keeps your business ticking over. The key metric(s) here will vary by business but you should consider things like:
- number of new sales enquiries
- number of customer complaints
- how efficient is your production and/or purchasing
- what’s your market share.
- sales revenue by customer/product or segment
Environmental costs – Chevron in Ecuador.
(Photo from Economist.com/AP)
In one of the modules I teach at university, I try to introduce undergraduate accounting students to several important issues facing businesses. On issue is sustainable business. And what has that got to do with accounting who might ask? Quite a bit actually. For one things accountants are good at collecting and reporting on information – these skills can be applied to monitoring waste, energy, water usage as well as evaluating sustainable investments. But maybe a more important point is that a sustainable business is one which is likely to be around in the longer term – it is thinking about how environmental issues might affect its costs and revenues.
On major cost for firms that night not be that good on environmental issues is legal fines and other litigation costs. A piece in this weeks Economist (see here) tells of a $9 billion fine levied against US oil firm Chevron by a court in Ecuador. There seems to be a bit of a background story about corruption and so on, but the sheer size of the fine would put a big dent in any firm’s profits.
Doing business is getting easier?
As many entrepreneurs know, there seems to be endless reams of regulations and rules a business needs to follow. This makes doing business all the harder. In some countries the amount of regulations for small business are often off-putting. However, according to a recent World Bank report (see here), about 85% of the world economies have need doing business easier in the last five years. The annual “Doing Business” report by the World Bank (see www.doingbusiness.org) is one of those quite useful – but perhaps not well known ways – of comparing the relative ease of doing business in other countries. The report measures key business “topics” to help business on the way: starting a business, construction permits, property registration, getting credit, investor protection, paying taxes, enforcing contracts and so on. Us Irish don’t do too bad in the ranking, as 8th easiest in the world. Typically, doing business in the OECD countries is easiest, with sub-Saharan Africa at the bottom of the league. While glancing through the full report, I thought it would be a fairly useful resource for any small business you might be considering extending export markets. The associated website is packed with information too!
Estimating costs using multiple regression analysis in Microsoft Excel
I am writing a management accounting text book chapter at the moment and put together a short video on how to get Excel (2007) to do multiple regression. The multiple regression technique is often used to estimate costs that are influenced by several factors. Click here too see the video. Hope it helps
XBRL on the up
According to CIMA Insight (December 2010), XBRL (the html-type languages used to electronically transmit financial reports) is becoming very common place. XBRL is an XML type language (used on web pages and e-business) used specifically for financial reporting. The increasing use of IFRS, and a XBRL file which encompasses IFRS is undoubtedly helping the rise of XBRL. It is also a free to use language, which helps too. So does XBRL do or offer?
The key advantage is that is provides a common and agreed method to file financial reports in all kinds of places. Using the main statements required under IFRS for example, anyone with a web-browser can make sense of the data in the financial statements and manipulate the data as required. The US stock exchange and the UK tax authorities are just two who already use XBRL. Indeed many authorities are likely to make it mandatory in the near future. By filing financial reports in XBRL format, many agencies could in theory use the one filing for multiple purposes – simply because the filing is electronic.
Although XBRL is being driven by regulators and external financial reporting, it could also streamline internal accounting processes. For example, a large organisation may have non-standardised financial reports, which could be standardised used XBRL – assuming of course a standard reporting mechanism/format could be agreed.
For more detailed information, check out http://xbrl.org/
The key points on Key Performance Indicators
Robin Tidd wrote a very concise article in Accountancy Plus recently (see the December 2010 issue here) on the subject of key performance indicators (KPI) in a business. According to Tidd, while around 90% of Fortune 500 companies utilise tools like the Balanced Scorecard to report on KPI, 70% are not happy with their reports. Tidd, rightly points out that this is not a problem with the tools used – such as a Balanced Scorecard – but more likely the application of the tools. He makes a few key points which I summarise below.
1. Don’t mix up KPI with key reporting indicators.
The best example of this is profit, which is a result or outcome.
Of course these results are essential, but tell nothing about what
caused the result. For example, have profits increased due to
improved productivity or customer satisfaction.
2. Use maps of your organisations processes to help find the best KPI.
3. Be careful to look at all processes and not just departmental ones. This avoids choosing KPI which may be sub-optimal.
4. Compare KPI on a regular basis, keeping the reporting interval short. This allows for faster corrective action.
5. Use the KPI on the front-line on a regular and routine basis. This fosters continuous improvement in all processes.
You can read the full article here http://is.gd/jLEn2
How to prepare an annual Budget
I’m a bit stuck for time just now, so here’s a useful post I found on inc.com recently. It give good advice on setting an annual budget, a cash budget and tips on your first budget if you’re a start-up. Here’s the link: How to Set an Annual Budget.
Management control in NGO’s
Non-governmental organisations (NGO) are increasingly being held to account for their performance and uses of funding. Indeed, the funding they obtain is more likely to be based on having sufficient competencies to use the funds in the best possible way. Sounds like a business doesn’t it? But NGO’s are not businesses you might say, and they usually have a non-profit (and often very worthy) objective.
However, NGO’s are increasingly becoming like businesses. For example, the Charities Act (2009) in Ireland requires all charities to be formally registered and (in most cases) submit annual audited financial reports to a Registrar. From a management accounting view, NGO’s can of course adopt budgetary control and other performance measures as normally used in a business. A recent report from CIMA suggests “evidence shows that developing formal management controls can help NGOs to develop networks with government departments, funding agencies, other service providers and clients”. It goes on to say that management accounting can contribute in several ways to the success of an NGO:
- Planning and control when formulating proposals for funding, often involving networks of partner agencies.
- Clarifying within the NGO the importance of including economic efficiency as an organisational value alongside traditional welfare values.
- Linking non-financial operational performance to financial concerns.
Preventive maintenance – a good investment?
This article on The Economist website brought me back to my days working as a management accountant in manufacturing firms. Maintaining manufacturing and process equipment was always a delicate balance. Spares and maintenance staff pay was quite a substantial cost in one plant I worked in over the years. This plant, like others, tried its best to engage in preventive maintenance programs. This usually implied using a mixture of following guidelines from equipment manufacturers and the experience of the maintenance staff. But, as I am sure you can imagine, preventative maintenance comes at a cost too. The arguments would always be “should we wait until it breaks, or fix it before it breaks”. Of course, letting a piece of equipment go unmaintained can create serious problems. A business needs to avoid its main manufacturing process being down – losses of revenue per day (or even per hour) rack up very quickly. So from an accounting and profit view, a balance needs to be achieved between the right level of preventive maintenance and the cost of same.
Of course modern technology can help. When I left my last manufacturing role back in 2004, process equipment could be remotely diagnosed and repaired by engineers. I always remember being amazed in or around 2001 when a production manager told me how the main machine at our plant had PLC’s (programmable logic circuits) with an IP address – the same as any PC or internet device. This meant the engineers from the equipment manufacturer could simply connect over the internet. At the time I was thinking, wouldn’t it be great if fault information could be sent out instead, or even better, that fault signs might be noted in advance.
So, reading the above mentioned piece from The Economist brought me back to those great days when I as an accountant was constantly amazed by how advanced machinery had become. But now it seems a “virtual engineer” may be on hand to predict if electrical equipment is showing early signs of failure (read the piece for more detail). No detail is given on the cost of such devices, but it would seem to be a great cost-saving idea. It could mean that preventive maintenance costs are incurred less frequently as equipment may be perfectly fine beyond it’s normal maintenance period
How to drive at 1,000mph – at what cost?
I’m a big fan of F1 and other motor sports. Putting on the accountants’ hat, sometimes the costs of the F1 industry astound me, but so too do the TV rights revenues and sponsorship deals. This article in The Economist caught my eye last November. It’s about a new attempt to break the land speed record. There are over 200 businesses involved in this. I’m thinking what is it costing them, and what revenues will they get back? Come on, a Cosworth F1 engine is needed to “kick-start” the jet engine that makes this thing go. I can imagine the roar of it, but the dent in someone’s bank account must be big too!
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